Mineral acids in ancient Indian texts: A historical perspective and contemporary validation

Abstract

This paper aims to investigate the presence and knowledge of mineral acids in ancient Indian texts prior to the eighth century CE and recreate the process of in situ production described there. Historians of science and chemists have opined that prior to the iatrochemistry period (Rasaśāstra), ancient Indian chemists had limited knowledge of acids and were only familiar with organic acids derived from plants and animals. It is believed that the mineral acid was introduced to the Indians by the Persians after the alleged discovery of mineral acid (royal water) by Jābir ibn Hayyān after the ninth century CE. A literature review was conducted of ancient texts before the twelfth century CE, in which passages and verses containing references to mineral acids were identified. The mineral acids were detected by measuring the pH levels of the solutions described in the texts. Based on the literature survey results, Indian scholars exhibited significant knowledge of mineral acids, especially pertaining to Lohasiddhi, the transformation of base metals into noble ones, and Dehasiddhi, the attainment of rejuvenation and well-being. The experimental results that confirmed mineral acids during replication processes establish the relevance and accuracy of ancient knowledge about mineral acids and reinforce their validity. By bridging the gap between historical practices and modern scientific understanding, this study is a significant contribution to the field of Indian knowledge systems. © Indian National Science Academy 2025.